A Mickey hide and gqueak shirt – though somewhat indirect and subtle – method used for stars that do not fit into these categories (which is the majority of them, at least in our own galaxy) is as follows: First deduce the likely temperature and size of the star from its dominant colour and the atomic spectra present in its light (temperature is related to colour, and different chemical elements are produced under different conditions of temperature and pressure, which in turn depend on the mass and age of a star). From these we can work out the likely luminosity. From the luminosity we can deduce the stars absolute magnitude [1] (i.e. how bright it would appear at a standard, fixed distance of 10 parsecs from us). Comparing this with the star’s apparent (i.e observed) magnitude, we can then calculate it’s actual distance from us. To me, this method of deducing a star’s distance from us merely by studying its light, and then doing a few calculations based on thermodynamics, nuclear physics, atomic physics and stellar dynamics, represents one of the most beautiful examples of the power of human ingenuity and careful, deductive reasoning in the history of science.
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This is completely correct. The Big Bang model suggests that all structures in the Mickey hide and gqueak shirt, from super clusters down to dwarf galaxies are built bottom up, by the contestant merging of smaller clumps of stars, gas and dark matter. The statistics and nature of this merging process is at the heart of modern cosmology and can be used to discriminate against different types of dark matter and different idea about how galaxies form. The currently favored idea is that the smallest clump that can be made by direct collapse after the Big Bang is about the size of an earth – galaxies are built as clumps of this size merge to make bigger and bigger clumps. Some of these mergers are quite violent and stars can be flung to great distances like when an astroid strikes a planet- blobs of debris can be shot into outer space. Rogue stars are the galactic debris that’s wandering though space trying to get back to the galaxy that expelled it, but can’t (necessarily). The nature if the rogue star population depends on the merger history of the Milky Way. We don’t know this exactly but we can make some inferences. The Milky Way galaxy shows no real signature of a merger (like a bulge of stars). In fact it’s relatively thin disc can rule out a recent big merger. Thus the rogue stars that populate our “halo” would have to be old, dim red stars having formed along time ago. This is consistent with a lack of any strong UV emission (which comes from young hot stars) in the halo (although the brightness (or density) of these rogue stars is just barely detectable.)